Report from:
Climate Working Group
United States Department of Energy
July 23, 2025

Summary & Report download

Report Overview and Scope

• Published on July 23, 2025, by the Department of Energy, this report by the Climate Working Group provides a critical review of how greenhouse gas emissions impact the U.S. climate.
• The document examines the direct environmental effects of carbon dioxide, including its role in global greening and ocean chemistry, alongside human influences on radiative forcing and temperature trends.
• The report evaluates climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide, highlighting discrepancies between climate models and instrumental observations regarding surface and tropospheric warming, as well as other environmental metrics.
• The analysis covers trends in extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and the uncertainties associated with attributing specific climate changes and events to human activity.

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Expert Review and Findings

• This report, commissioned by Secretary of Energy Dan Brouillette and authored by an independent team of experts, reviews the scientific evidence regarding the impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions on the U.S. climate and societal well-being.
• The authors argue that mainstream climate models often produce exaggerated warming projections due to the use of implausible emission scenarios and excessive sensitivity to carbon dioxide, noting that historical U.S. data generally do not support claims of increasing frequency or intensity for most extreme weather events.
• The report suggests that elevated carbon dioxide levels contribute to increased agricultural productivity and global “greening,” while cautioning that current estimates of the Social Cost of Carbon are highly sensitive to underlying assumptions and may provide limited utility for policy.
• The authors conclude that U.S. emissions policies are expected to have minimal direct impact on the global climate and warn that overly aggressive mitigation strategies could potentially cause more economic harm than benefit.

Carbon Dioxide and Global Greening

• Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring gas essential for plant photosynthesis and lacks the toxicological effects associated with regulated criteria air pollutants, despite its legal classification as a pollutant under the Clean Air Act.
• Rising atmospheric CO2 levels have contributed to a well-documented “global greening” phenomenon, enhancing plant growth and water use efficiency across the planet.
• Geological evidence indicates that plants evolved under significantly higher CO2 concentrations than current levels, and research consistently shows that increased CO2 promotes biomass production, particularly in C3 crops.
• While CO2 absorption is reducing ocean alkalinity, the primary scientific concern regarding CO2 remains its role as a greenhouse gas that alters the Earth’s energy balance and influences global climate.
• Increased atmospheric CO2 enhances plant growth by stimulating photosynthesis and improving water use efficiency, which allows plants to retain water by keeping stomata closed for longer periods.
• Research indicates that CO2 fertilization can offset potential crop yield losses from warming and water scarcity, contributing to global greening even in arid regions.
• While ocean pH has decreased due to CO2 absorption, the term “acidification” is considered a misnomer; marine life has historically adapted to a wide range of pH levels, and concerns regarding coral reef calcification are often exaggerated by publication bias and flawed data analysis.

Climate Forcing and Solar Influence

• The Earth’s climate is influenced by both natural factors, such as solar irradiance and volcanic activity, and anthropogenic factors, including greenhouse gas emissions and land-use changes.
• Radiative forcing quantifies these influences, with carbon dioxide identified as the primary human-driven warming factor, while aerosols provide a cooling effect characterized by significant uncertainty.
• Scientific debate persists regarding the extent of solar influence on 20th-century warming, particularly concerning the interpretation of Total Solar Irradiance data and the “ACRIM gap” between 1989 and 1991.
• The text notes that while the IPCC attributes minimal change to solar forcing, some researchers argue that diverse data reconstructions allow for varying conclusions regarding the sun’s contribution to recent climate trends.

Emission Scenarios and Carbon Sequestration

• Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have risen from 316 ppm in 1959 to approximately 430 ppm, a 36 percent increase that remains influenced by land and ocean processes absorbing roughly half of human-generated emissions.
• Predicting future climate impacts is hindered by significant uncertainties in demographic, economic, and technological factors, leading the IPCC to utilize emission scenarios that are often mischaracterized as forecasts.
• Research indicates that IPCC emission projections, including the SRES, RCP, and SSP families, have consistently overestimated actual observed trends.
• The RCP8.5 scenario, originally designed as an extreme, low-probability case for model testing, has been widely and controversially misused as a “business-as-usual” baseline, contributing to an imbalanced, alarm-oriented focus in climate literature.
• The carbon cycle naturally sequesters approximately 50 percent of annual human-produced CO2 emissions through land vegetation and oceanic uptake, though this fraction fluctuates due to natural variability and specific events like volcanic eruptions.
• While both land and ocean models indicate that carbon sequestration has increased since 1959, land models show significantly higher variability and uncertainty in their projections compared to ocean models.

Urban Heat Island Effects

• There is ongoing scientific debate regarding the extent to which Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects contaminate historical land temperature records, with some researchers arguing that current data-cleaning procedures fail to fully remove these upward biases.
• Although the IPCC has maintained that urbanization contributes less than 10 percent to observed global land surface warming, recent studies suggest that UHI contamination may be more significant than these estimates imply.

Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity

• Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS), defined as the warming expected from a doubling of atmospheric CO2, remains a central and highly uncertain metric in climate science, with estimates significantly influencing the economic justification for emission control policies.
• The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) narrowed the likely range of ECS to 2.5–4.0°C, shifting away from the 1.5–4.5°C range used in previous reports; however, the text argues that the upward adjustment of the lower bound is less justified by recent evidence, which suggests a lower bound closer to 1.8°C.
• There is growing skepticism regarding the use of General Circulation Models to determine ECS, leading the IPCC to increasingly rely on data-driven approaches, including historical observations and paleoclimatic reconstructions, despite challenges posed by data inadequacies.
• Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS) is a key metric for climate models, yet its estimation remains subject to significant uncertainty due to the complexity of cloud feedbacks and the practice of tuning model parameters to match historical warming records.
• The range of ECS values produced by climate models has widened in recent years, leading the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) to prioritize data-driven methods over model simulations; however, these empirical estimates are also debated due to methodological disagreements and uncertainties regarding aerosol cooling and historical data.
• Disagreements persist regarding the “pattern effect,” where some researchers argue that climate models incorrectly predict a weakening of the tropical Pacific temperature gradient, potentially leading to an overestimation of future climate sensitivity.
• Transient Climate Response (TCR) is considered a more tightly constrained and useful observational metric than ECS, as it avoids some of the long-term feedback uncertainties associated with defining equilibrium climate states.

Climate Model Performance and Discrepancies

• Climate models are complex tools that rely on subgrid assumptions and parameter tuning to simulate Earth’s climate, yet they exhibit significant disagreement regarding future warming projections that has persisted for decades.
• A recurring issue is that climate models frequently over-predict warming in response to historical forcings, including excessive warming at the surface, in the troposphere, and aloft.
• Comparisons of CMIP6 models against historical temperature records indicate that while low-equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) models track observed warming reasonably well, medium- and high-ECS models tend to overestimate it.
• Beyond surface temperature, models show discrepancies in reproducing other climate features, such as stratospheric cooling, hemispheric albedos, snow loss, and regional warming patterns.
• Climate models consistently overstate warming trends in the tropical troposphere compared to observational data from satellites, weather balloons, and reanalysis systems, a discrepancy that has persisted and widened since it was first identified in 2006.
• Comparisons of vertical temperature profiles in the tropics show that observed warming trends from 1979 to 2024 are significantly lower than those projected by climate models, with observations often falling outside the entire range of model-simulated outcomes.
• Research indicates that models exaggerate the rate of warming amplification with altitude, suggesting fundamental flaws in how models represent heat transfer, feedback processes, and climate sensitivity.
• While the IPCC acknowledges a model-observation mismatch regarding tropospheric warming, it assigns only medium confidence to the existence of this bias, and recent stratospheric temperature trends have shown warming that contradicts model projections of cooling.
• Climate models frequently exhibit significant discrepancies when compared to observational data, including overestimations of surface and tropospheric warming, excessive stratospheric cooling, and inaccurate projections of Northern Hemisphere snow cover trends.
• Observations indicate that the planetary albedo maintains a near-symmetric balance between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, a feature that most CMIP6 climate models fail to reproduce, often showing large and inconsistent asymmetries.
• Regional climate model projections for the U.S. Corn Belt show warming trends that are significantly higher than observed temperatures, leading some researchers to conclude that current models are not fit for purpose for certain regional applications.

Extreme Weather Trends

• Most types of extreme weather, including hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and droughts, show no statistically significant long-term trends in the historical record, despite considerable natural variability.
• While U.S. hot days have increased since the 1950s, current numbers remain low compared to the 1920s and 1930s, and wildfire activity is not more common than in the 1980s.
• Scientific assessments emphasize that short observational records—typically limited to about 130 years—are insufficient to distinguish human-caused climate change from long-term natural oscillations, leading to a gap between public perception and empirical evidence.
• Regarding tropical cyclones, there is low confidence in long-term global frequency trends, and data on U.S. landfalls since 1900 show no significant trend.
• Historical data on hurricane activity is limited by short records and significant natural variability, such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, which complicates the detection of long-term trends in intensity or frequency.
• While some studies report increasing heatwave trends since 1950, U.S. heatwave activity and extreme daily temperatures reached a peak in the 1930s, with a majority of record-high and record-low temperature events occurring in the first half of the 126-year observation period.
• Analysis of U.S. landfalling hurricanes since 1920 shows no statistically significant trend, and the frequency of extreme cold events has declined, particularly over the last quarter of the recorded period.
• Long-term records indicate that the U.S. climate has become less extreme over the past century, as measured by the narrowing range between warm-season maximums and cold-season minimums.
• Threshold-based metrics for extreme heat, such as the number of days exceeding 95°F or the frequency of heatwaves, show significant regional variation and are heavily influenced by natural climate variability and urban heat island effects rather than a consistent national trend.
• Analyses of extreme events are highly sensitive to the chosen time period and data source; using short or truncated records can produce misleading results, as demonstrated by historical rainfall data in San Francisco.
• The evidence suggests that greenhouse gas emissions have had little-to-no detectable effect on U.S. heatwave trends when accounting for urbanization and natural climate patterns.
• Analysis of long-term precipitation records for the U.S. Pacific Coast, Southeast, and Northeast indicates that, when averaged across all stations in each region, there are no statistically significant trends in the frequency or intensity of extreme rainfall events.

Natural Variability and Historical Records

• Paleoclimate evidence and historical records, such as the 1861-62 ARkStorm, demonstrate that natural climate variability can produce extreme events far exceeding those observed in the relatively short 130-year instrumental record, which may lead to significant underestimations of potential future extremes.
• While some regions show localized clustering of heavy precipitation—such as in the Northeast between 1995 and 2014—these trends often diminish in subsequent years, highlighting the limitations of drawing long-term conclusions from short-term climate samples.
• Analysis of long-term U.S. records does not support claims that extreme short-duration rainfall events are becoming more frequent or intense, and there is no detectable U.S.-wide trend in flooding magnitude or frequency.
• Observational data show a substantial decrease in strong to violent tornadoes in the U.S. since 1950, while the number of weak tornadoes has remained roughly constant since 1990.
• There is no evidence of increasing meteorological drought frequency or intensity in the U.S. or globally, with long-term U.S. data showing an insignificantly declining trend in extreme dryness.
• Global wildfire activity is constant or declining, and historical records indicate that the U.S. maintains a significant “wildfire deficit” relative to historical fire regimes despite recent increases in burned area.

Forest Management Strategies

• Historically, the U.S. Forest Service prioritized total fire suppression, exemplified by the 1935 “10 am rule” that mandated the control of all spotted fires by the following morning.
• The agency has since shifted its management strategy, moving away from total suppression toward approaches like prescribed burns, fuel elimination, and controlled wildfires.
• Current research supports this transition, indicating that more frequent, smaller fires contribute to improved forest health, biodiversity, and water ecosystem stability.

Sea Level Rise and Coastal Impacts

• Global average sea level has risen by approximately 8 inches since 1900, driven by thermal expansion, melting ice, and variations in land water storage.
• Relative sea level rise measured at U.S. tide gauges often conflates global sea level trends with local vertical land motion, such as subsidence caused by groundwater extraction, soil compaction, or resource withdrawal.
• In regions experiencing significant land sinking, such as Galveston, New Orleans, and parts of the San Francisco Bay area, local subsidence is a primary driver of observed sea level changes, often exceeding the rate of absolute global sea level rise.
• While global sea level projections for 2050 show high agreement across emissions scenarios, projections for 2100 remain uncertain, and current U.S. tide gauge measurements show no clear acceleration beyond historical averages.
• Global mean sea level projections for 2100 remain subject to deep uncertainty regarding ice sheet instabilities, with IPCC AR6 estimates ranging from 7.9 to 39.4 inches under a medium emissions scenario.
• NOAA’s 2022 projection of a one-foot sea level rise by 2050 at The Battery in Manhattan represents a significant acceleration compared to historical rates, which the agency describes as “locked in” regardless of future emissions.

Climate Attribution Methodologies

• Climate change attribution—the process of identifying the causes of observed changes—relies on statistical inference and expert judgment, as controlled experimentation on the climate system is impossible.
• Attribution efforts face ongoing scientific debate and challenges, including high natural variability, data limitations, reliance on climate models, and the complexity of causal chains in extreme weather events.
• The IPCC’s attribution of global warming to human activity has evolved across assessment reports, with AR6 attributing essentially all warming since the pre-industrial period to greenhouse gases while assigning a negligible net impact to natural drivers and internal variability.
• Critics argue that the IPCC’s assessment methodology is flawed due to inadequate consideration of natural climate variability, questionable statistical methods, and discrepancies between climate models and observations.
• Significant debate persists regarding the magnitude of solar variability, as the choice of satellite data and the potential influence of non-TSI solar mechanisms can substantially alter the attribution of climate change between human and natural forcings.
• While the IPCC acknowledges that internal ocean oscillations like the AMO and PDO modulate climate trends, critics contend that climate models fail to accurately simulate the timing and amplitude of these modes, often averaging out their influence in attribution studies.
• Global temperature trends have fluctuated significantly since the early 20th century, including a cooling period from 1945 to 1976 known as the “grand hiatus” and an abrupt shift in 1976–1977 associated with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation.
• Research suggests that early 20th-century warming and mid-century cooling were influenced by a combination of natural climate variability, solar activity, volcanic forcing, and greenhouse gas concentrations.
• Optimal fingerprinting, the primary statistical method used by the IPCC for climate attribution, has been challenged by researchers who argue that its reliance on Total Least Squares regression and climate model assumptions may lead to biased results and an overstatement of anthropogenic influence.
• Alternative “climate econometrics” methods, such as Granger causality analysis, offer ways to assess climate drivers without relying on climate models, though these approaches also face ongoing methodological debates.

Planetary Albedo and Cloud Dynamics

• Since 2015, Earth has experienced a significant 0.5 percent reduction in planetary albedo, which corresponds to an increase of 1.7 W/m² in absorbed solar radiation and coincides with record global warmth.
• Changes in surface characteristics, such as sea ice, snow cover, and global greening, cannot explain this sharp decline, leading researchers to identify reduced cloud cover as the primary driver.
• The cause of this cloud reduction remains uncertain, with competing theories attributing the trend to either natural climate variability—such as the 2014-2016 El Niño or the 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption—or an emerging positive feedback loop linked to warming sea surface temperatures.
• Distinguishing between these explanations is critical for assessing climate sensitivity, as a 1-2 percent change in global cloud cover exerts a greater radiative impact than the doubling of atmospheric CO2.

Attribution of Extreme Events

• The IPCC AR6 report indicates that for most climatic impact-drivers (CIDs), including wind, precipitation, flooding, and drought, there is no detected anthropogenic signal distinguishable from natural variability.
• The authors argue that IPCC attribution methods may overstate human influence, noting that even under extreme emissions scenarios, most weather impacts are not expected to exhibit a detectable anthropogenic signal this century.
• Extreme event attribution (EEA) remains controversial due to methodological challenges, such as the difficulty of distinguishing climate change from natural variability, the lack of long-term historical data, and the ambiguity of defining extreme events.
• Initiatives like World Weather Attribution face criticism for promoting non-peer-reviewed findings and failing to adequately account for internal climate variability, leading some researchers to suggest that linking individual weather events to global climate change should be avoided.
• The 2021 Western North America heat wave was an unprecedented compound weather event that broke long-standing temperature records, prompting debate over the role of anthropogenic climate change in its occurrence.
• While the World Weather Attribution (WWA) team concluded the event was made significantly more likely and intense by human-caused warming, other researchers argue that the heat wave resulted from rare meteorological conditions that were not made more probable by climate change.
• Statistical experts caution that attributing extreme outliers to climate change is inherently uncertain, noting that current modeling methods may overstate the rarity of such events and lead to biased conclusions regarding their frequency and causes.

Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change

• The provided text consists of a bibliography of scientific literature regarding climate change, followed by a summary of a chapter on U.S. agriculture.
• The chapter asserts that rising carbon dioxide levels have increased the productivity of major U.S. crops and that climate-induced warming has historically provided a net benefit to U.S. agriculture.
• The text concludes that climate change is expected to remain neutral or beneficial for the majority of U.S. agriculture, noting that econometric analyses of this impact often incorporate assumptions regarding farmers’ adaptive behaviors.
• Econometric studies on the impact of climate change on agriculture have produced conflicting results, with early research suggesting potential benefits and later models often projecting significant losses; however, recent analyses indicate that these pessimistic findings may stem from methodological limitations, such as the use of inaccurate land value metrics or incomplete datasets.
• A significant limitation in many climate-agriculture models is the omission of CO2 fertilization, which field and laboratory experiments consistently show enhances crop growth, photosynthesis, and drought resilience in major crops like corn, soy, and wheat.
• Research by Taylor and Schlenker (2021) suggests that CO2 emissions have substantially boosted U.S. crop production since 1940, while a re-examination of meta-analyses by McKitrick (2025) indicates that incorporating complete data sets reverses projections of declining global yields under warming scenarios.
• While elevated CO2 levels may lead to reductions in certain crop nutrients, experts suggest that these effects can be mitigated through adaptive strategies such as selective breeding, genetic modification, and food fortification.
• Rising CO2 levels are expected to benefit U.S. agricultural productivity, and potential nutrient dilution in crops can be addressed through adaptive strategies such as dietary supplementation.

Economic Growth and Extreme Weather Losses

• High-emission climate scenarios are associated with significant global economic growth, which may largely eliminate poverty and increase the global capacity to afford nutritional interventions.
• Trends in economic losses from extreme weather are primarily driven by increases in population and wealth exposure rather than changes in weather frequency or intensity; when normalized for GDP, these losses have decreased by approximately 80 percent since 1980.
• Technological advancements, including improved weather forecasting, early warning systems, and infrastructure improvements like building codes and flood defenses, have substantially reduced mortality and economic losses from extreme weather events.
• Economic losses from extreme weather are primarily driven by population growth and economic expansion, while technological advancements, improved infrastructure, and disaster response have significantly reduced losses relative to GDP.

Temperature-Related Mortality and Adaptation

• Cold-related mortality significantly exceeds heat-related mortality globally and in the United States, with studies indicating that cold weather accounts for a substantially higher fraction of temperature-attributable deaths.
• U.S. heat-related mortality has declined sharply over recent decades due to adaptation, including the widespread adoption of air conditioning and improvements in healthcare, leading researchers to project that future heat-related mortality will not increase substantially.
• The effectiveness of climate adaptation is contingent upon affordable energy, as low-income households are less able to increase energy expenditures during extreme temperature events compared to high-income households.

Climate Economics and Policy Justification

• Mainstream climate economics generally views the economic impact of climate change as small relative to other socioeconomic drivers, such as technological advancement and population growth, leading to the conclusion that aggressive emissions abatement may be economically unjustified.
• The Social Cost of Carbon is considered highly uncertain and dependent on a wide range of assumptions, meaning it does not provide an objective measure of climate impacts or a clear mandate for specific policy actions.
• Historical data indicates that despite global warming since 1900, human prosperity has increased significantly, with mortality rates from extreme weather events declining and weather-related disaster losses decreasing as a proportion of global GDP.
• Research suggests that while warming may negatively affect some regions, it could provide net economic benefits in others, and the overall impact on developed economies like the United States is expected to be negligible compared to other economic factors.
• Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs), such as Nordhaus’ DICE model, simulate climate damages and policy responses, often suggesting that aggressive emission abatement is more costly than the projected economic impacts of warming.
• Econometric studies analyzing the relationship between temperature and economic growth have produced conflicting results, with many initial findings of significant negative impacts failing to remain robust when accounting for model uncertainty, heterogeneous country data, or alternative specifications.
• Mainstream climate economics generally characterizes climate change as a relatively minor factor in long-term economic growth, with recent analyses suggesting that the net impact of warming on global and U.S. GDP is likely small, highly uncertain, or potentially negligible.

Social Cost of Carbon Analysis

• The Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) is calculated using IAMs to impute the economic welfare loss of CO2 emissions, a process that relies on model-based assumptions and damage functions rather than direct market data.
• Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) used to calculate the Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) rely on subjective assumptions regarding discount rates, damage functions, and Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS), making SCC estimates “if-then” statements rather than empirical certainties.
• SCC calculations are highly sensitive to model parameters; for instance, failing to align ECS with time-to-equilibrium can distort damage estimates, and recent revisions to EPA estimates were driven by new assumptions—such as agricultural damage projections—rather than new data.
• Incorporating updated scientific inputs, such as lower empirically-derived ECS values and higher CO2 fertilization benefits, can significantly lower SCC estimates, with some models suggesting the SCC may be near or below zero.

Climate Tipping Points

• Models often incorporate “tipping points” to account for potential catastrophic climate outcomes, though the term conflates distinct physical concepts of external-force-driven thresholds and internal nonlinear system bifurcations.
• Climate tipping points are categorized as either abrupt transitions triggered by external forcing or inherent system bifurcations that may occur independently, though current research cannot reliably predict these events.
• The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) finds little evidence for the imminent collapse of major systems like the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation or the West Antarctic ice sheet, and it assigns low probabilities to most high-impact tipping scenarios.
• Incorporating potential tipping points into Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) calculations yields only modest increases in estimates, and the inherent uncertainty surrounding these events has led some jurisdictions to move toward alternative “target-consistent” carbon pricing models.

Efficacy of Emissions Policy

• U.S. policy actions to reduce CO2 emissions are expected to have only negligible and delayed impacts on the global climate because CO2 mixes globally and persists in the atmosphere for thousands of years.
• Unlike local air pollutants that dissipate quickly, reducing U.S. CO2 emissions would only modestly slow the rise of global atmospheric concentrations, as meaningful reductions require global emissions to fall below natural sequestration rates.
• Historical and projected policy efforts, such as the Kyoto Protocol or the Paris Accord, demonstrate that even full compliance with international agreements would result in only minor delays or reductions in global temperature increases.
• The text argues that characterizing unilateral U.S. emissions reductions as “combatting climate change” reflects a misunderstanding of the scale of the global carbon cycle and the limited influence of local policy on global climate outcomes.
• U.S. cars and light-duty trucks account for approximately 3 percent of global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions, meaning their total elimination would have a negligible impact on global warming trends and atmospheric CO2 accumulation.
• Because the projected reduction in global warming from eliminating these U.S. vehicle emissions falls well below the limits of current measurement precision, such regulatory actions would not measurably remediate climate risks.
• The report advocates for a more evidence-based approach to climate policy that explicitly acknowledges model uncertainties, addresses biases, and weighs the costs and efficacy of actions against the need for reliable, affordable energy.

Scientific Terminology and Metadata

• The provided text defines key terminology used in climate science, including concepts related to greenhouse gas emissions, radiative forcing, economic impact assessments, and statistical methods.
• It outlines the framework for climate scenarios, specifically Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs), which are used to model future atmospheric impacts.
• The document includes comprehensive metadata for figures and tables, citing various external data sources, research papers, and government agencies used to support the analysis of climate trends and impacts.
• The document provides a collection of data sources, figures, and tables related to climate change research, including references to NOAA, the IPCC, and various academic studies.

Author Credentials and Institutional Background

• The authors of the review are John Christy, Judith Curry, Steven E. Koonin, Ross McKitrick, and Roy W. Spencer, all of whom hold advanced degrees and have extensive experience in atmospheric sciences, physics, economics, and climate policy.
• The contributors have held significant roles in academic, governmental, and scientific institutions, including the IPCC, NASA, the Department of Energy, and various national laboratories, and have frequently provided testimony to legislative bodies.

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Header image: Photo by Samrat Khadka on Unsplash

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